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  Russia 1894-1924  [Revision Cascade]

This Cascade will give you points and ideas for writing an answer about any of the topics in the list.  And, when it comes to revision, you can use it to test your memory of the points and ideas you might want to raise in the exam.

Click on the yellow arrows to reveal the paragraph points, and again to reveal ideas for developing the point.

I have given you five points for every topic but, in practical terms for the exam, you will probably get away with remembering three or four.
  • open section 1.   Russia at the start of the 20th century
    • open section a. Russia was huge
      • Russia encompassed 125 million people, 21 nationalities spread across 2500 miles. The Trans-Siberian Railway did not solve Russia’s communication problems; instead poor migrants flocked to the towns
    • open section b. Economy
      • The economy was backward, especially agriculture, which was unable to feed the growing population, leading to famine (the harvest failure of 1891-2 claimed 400,000 lives) and poverty.
    • open section c. Government
      • The Tsar was an autocrat. There was a Council of Ministers – but these were nobles that he chose. Opposition was illegal, and the Tsar used the Okhrana (secret police) to arrest and exile thousands of opponents. Nicholas was overwhelmed by the volume of work
    • open section d. Gregorian calendar
      • A sign of Russia’s backwardness was that it still used the Gregorian calendar, which ran 13 days late – so February in Russia was March in the rest of the world .
    • open section e. Violence
      • Riots, uprising and assassinations were endemic, particularly in rural areas
  • open section 2.   Russian society at the start of the 20th century
    • open section a. Peasants
      • Three quarters of the people were impoverished peasants. The abolition from erfdom had worsened their position.
    • open section b. Workers
      • No rights, long hours and low pay; appalling living conditions. As a result, socialism, communism, and anarchism progressively gained popularity in Russia
    • open section c. Aristocracy
      • Just 700 nobles owned a quarter of the land and lived a life of luxury, waited on by lots of servants – but a sense of decline
    • open section d. Bourgeois
      • A small but growing number of the middle class, including the intelligentsia – they were impatient for a say in the government. .
    • open section e. Church
      • Most people were members of the Russian Orthodox Church. Its priests told people it was a sin to oppose the Tsar. The Church owned a lot of land, and the head of the Church was one of the Tsar’s ministers.
  • open section 3.   Nicholas II's government
    • open section a. Coronation catastrophe
      • Nicholas’s reign began with an accidental catastrophe on the Khodynka army training field
    • open section b. Autocratic
      • The Tsar was an autocrat; unable to cope with the huge detail of government
    • open section c. Weak, indecisive and stubborn
      • Nicholas II was weak, indecisive and stubborn; he regarded any change as a threat
    • open section d. Okhrana, cossacks and censorship
      • The Okhrana (secret police), a system of informers, censorship and regular torture/imprisonment/execution. Increasingly, the government used the army, notably the Cossacks, to put down rebellions .
    • open section e. Alexei’s haemophilia
      • The haemophilia of the heir to the throne fatally weakened the monarchy
  • open section 4.   The 1905 revolution
    • open section a. Defeat by Japan, 1904–1905
      • In 1905 – after Russia lost a war with Japan – there was a revolution
    • open section b. Bloody Sunday, 9 Jan 1905
      • A peaceful march of workers (led by Father Gapon to ask the Tsar to improve their conditions) was attacked by the Cossacks
    • open section c. Battleship Potemkin, Jun 1905
      • Sailors on the battleship Potemkin mutinied; workers and soldiers set up ‘Soviets’
    • open section d. August Manifesto, Aug 1905
      • The Tsar a (powerless) Duma (parliament)-  not enough, this provoked a railway and electricity strike which paralysed the economy.
    • open section e. October Manifesto, Oct 1905
      • The Tsar published the October Manifesto promising a Duma.
  • open section 5.   How did the Tsar survive the 1905 Revolution?
    • open section a. The army stayed loyal
      • The army remained loyal; it bloodily repressed the Moscow Soviet, using artillery to shell strikers' houses; other groups – the nobles, the Church, the peasants – also stayed loyal
    • open section b. The Tsar borrowed 900million roubles
      • This strengthened the government's finances after the 1904-5 war with Japan
    • open section c. October Manifesto, Oct 1905
      • The Tsar published the October Manifesto promising a Duma (parliament)
    • open section d. Stolypin appointed Prime Minister, 1906
      • Introduced reforms which helped the peasants and health insurance for workers, but also imposed a strict repression .
    • open section e. Stolypin's repression
      • By April 1906, more than 14,000 people had been executed and 75,000 imprisoned
  • open section 6.   Stolypin’s repression after 1905
    • open section a. Moscow Soviet suppressed
      • The army suppressed the Moscow Soviet
    • open section b. ‘Stolypin’s necktie'
      • Revolutionaries were tortured and executed; the noose was nicknamed ‘Stolypin’s necktie’
    • open section c. Dumas dissolved
      • The Tsar dissolved the first two Dumas when they questioned his authority
    • open section d. Fundamental Laws
      • The Fundamental Laws (1906) restored many of the Tsar’s powers .
    • open section e. Stolypin’s reforms blocked
      • Further Stolypin reforms (especially to taxes) were blocked by the Tsar
  • open section 7.   Traditional loyalties to the Tsar
    • open section a. The nobility
      • The nobility supported the Tsar – some even wanted to go back to autocracy
    • open section b. The Octobrists
      • The ‘Octobrists’ were happy with the Tsar’s reforms in his 1905 October Manifesto
    • open section c. The Church
      • The Church told the peasants that the Tsar had been appointed by God
    • open section d. The peasants
      • Many peasants loved and worshipped the Tsar .
    • open section e. Romanov tercentenary
      • The 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty saw a wave of popular support
  • open section 8.   Why did the Tsar's rule collapse?
    • open section a. Personal weakness of Nicholas II
      • Nicholas II was weak, indecisive and stubborn, unable to cope with the huge detail of government
    • open section b. Oppressive government
      • e.g. the Okhrana (secret police), informers, torture/imprisonment/execution, censorship, the Cossacks and Bloody Sunday (1905)
    • open section c. World War One
      • The Tsar took personal control of the army; so people blamed him for the defeats
    • open section d. Rasputin
      • Rumours about his behaviour and death discredited the royal family .
    • open section e. The March Revolution
      • In March 1917 there were riots and strikes; the army refused to put them down, and the Duma set up a ‘provisional government’
  • open section 9.   Opposition groups
    • open section a. The Kadets
      • Liberals (the ‘Kadets’) were middle class and wanted to reform the Tsar’s government to become like Britain’s
    • open section b. Social Revolutionaries
      • Wanted to overthrow the Tsar and establish a peasant government
    • open section c. Communists
      • Wanted to overthrow the Tsar and establish rule by the proletariat (industrial workers)
    • open section d. Bolshevik Communists
      • The Communists were split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks (Lenin and Stalin were Bolsheviks) .
    • open section e. Menshevik communists
      • The Communists were split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks (one example of a Menshevik was Julius Martov)
  • open section 10.   Russia in the First World War
    • open section a. Initial patriotism
      • The war was greeted with enthusiasm; St Petersburg was renamed Petrograd because it was more ‘Russian’
    • open section b. Poorly equipped and led
      • A third of soldiers did not have rifles; the army used radio, but did not encode their messages – so the Germans knew their every move
    • open section c. Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes
      • The Russians suffered heavy defeats at Tannenberg (August 1914) and the Masurian Lakes (Sep 1914)
    • open section d. Brusilov offensive
      • The Brusilov offensive in Galicia (June 1916) was quite successful, but costly in casualties .
    • open section e. Death and desertion
      • By 1917, nine million Russian soldiers had been killed or captured, and soldiers were deserting, or refusing to follow orders
  • open section 11.   First World War: consequences
    • open section a. Railways requisitioned
      • The railways were jammed with soldiers, which disrupted the supply of food to the towns
    • open section b. Runaway inflation
      • The move to military production (from consumer goods) created runaway inflation
    • open section c. Starvation in the towns
      • Conscripting peasants into the army led to failed harvests; people in the towns starved in the winter of 1916–1917
    • open section d. Rasputin ruined the Tsar's reputation
      • Whilst he was away with the army, the Tsar left the Tsarina Alexandra in control of the government; her domination by Rasputin utterly discredited the government .
    • open section e. Tsar blamed for defeat
      • In 1915, the Tsar took personal control of the army; so people blamed him for the defeats
  • open section 12.   The role of Rasputin
    • open section a. Rasputin dominated the Tsarina Alexandra
      • While he was away with the army, Nicholas left the Tsarina and Rasputin in charge
    • open section b. Alexei’s haemophilia
      • The Tsar could not let people know the truth that his heir had haemophilia
    • open section c. Rasputin’s appointments
      • Rasputin (a drunkard) ruined the government by appointing his friends as ministers
    • open section d. Rumours about Rasputin and Alexandra
      • Rumours that Rasputin was the Tsarina’s lover further discredited the royal family .
    • open section e. Rasputin’s murder by Yusupov, 1916
      • Rasputin’s murder (1916) – by Prince Yusupov – also discredited the royal family
  • open section 13.   The Tsar’s fall and abdication
    • open section a. Putilov strike, 4 Mar 1917
      • There were strikes (notably at the Putilov steelworks)
    • open section b. Women’s bread march, 8 Mar 1917
      • A women’s hunger march led to riots
    • open section c. Petrograd Soviet’s Order No.#1, 12 Mar 1917
      • The soldiers refused orders to put down the riots and formed soviets; the Petrograd Soviet issued Order No.1 – soldiers must obey only the Soviet
    • open section d. Provisional Government, 14 Mar 1917
      • When the Tsar refused to make decisions or reforms, the Duma took control and set up a ‘provisional government’ .
    • open section e. Tsar’s abdication, 15 Mar 1917
      • The Tsar had been trying to return to Petrograd, but soldiers hijacked his train; he abdicated and was arrested
  • open section 14.   Why was the March 1917 revolution successful?
    • open section a. Winter, 1916–17
      • The harsh winter, food shortages and galloping inflation fuelled anger
    • open section b. A popular uprising
      • There was a wave of strikes (notably at the Putilov steelworks); the revolution was started by the Women’s Day bread riot
    • open section c. The government was in chaos
      • The government was so weakened by the war, the Tsar's absence, the Tsarina and Rasputin that it was unable to respond adequately
    • open section d. The army deserted the Tsar
      • The soldiers refused orders to put down the riots and formed soviets; the Petrograd Soviet issued Order No.1 – soldiers must obey only the Soviet .
    • open section e. The Duma deserted the Tsar
      • When the Tsar refused to make decisions or reforms, the Duma took control and set up a ‘provisional government’
  • open section 15.   The Provisional Government: weaknesses
    • open section a. Huge problems
      • The problems facing it – the war, economy, land, opposition – were immense
    • open section b. Political freedom
      • Political freedoms (e.g. freedom of the press, release of political prisoners, right to strike) helped their opponents
    • open section c. Splits between Kadets and Mensheviks
      • It was divided: there were splits between Kadets and Mensheviks; in July 1917, Lvov resigned and Kerensky took over
    • open section d. Dual Government
      • It was forced to share power with the Soviets – the Petrograd Soviet acted as a parallel government (Petrograd Soviet issued Order No.1) .
    • open section e. Lack of Army support
      • The Provisional Government never had full control of the armed forces (e.g. Kronstadt Mutiny of May 1917, Petrograd Mutiny of 3 Nov 1917)
  • open section 16.   The Provisional Government: problems
    • open section a. Dual Government
      • It was forced to share power with the Petrograd Soviet (Order No.1)
    • open section b. Poor harvests and inflation
      • It inherited a disastrous economic situation from the Tsar’s government – harvest failures, a weak industrial economy, inflation, food shortages in the towns
    • open section c. Peasant demands for land
      • In the countryside the peasants were demanding to own their own land, but the government needed to keep the support of the landowners
    • open section d. Communists and Social Revolutionaries
      • Political opposition from the Communists and the Social Revolutionaries .
    • open section e. The June Offensive failed
      • The War was the biggest problem; in 1917 the ‘June Offensive’ failed disastrously
  • open section 17.   The Provisional Government: failures
    • open section a. Dual Government
      • Order No.1 meant the government was only obeyed if the Soviet agreed
    • open section b. Poor harvests and inflation
      • Rationing failed to end the food shortages, made the government unpopular, and there was looting and crime
    • open section c. Peasant demands for land
      • The government deferred the land question to the Constituent Assembly, and gave the land back to the nobles – causing riots in the countryside
    • open section d. Growing opposition
      • Freedom of speech and the press allowed opposition groups such as the Bolsheviks and the Social Revolutionaries to grow stronger .
    • open section e. The June Offensive failed
      • The government tried to continue the war, so the soldiers and people turned increasingly against the government
  • open section 18.   The Provisional Government’s failure: effects
    • open section a. Dual Government
      • Order No.1 meant the government was only obeyed if the Soviet agreed
    • open section b. Poor harvests caused looting
      • Rationing failed to end the food shortages, made the government unpopular, and there was looting and crime
    • open section c. Anarchy in the countryside
      • Deferring the land question and giving the land back to the nobles caused riots; the peasants took the land and killed the nobles
    • open section d. Growing opposition
      • Freedom of speech and the press allowed opposition groups such as the Bolsheviks and the Social Revolutionaries to grow stronger .
    • open section e. Petrograd Mutiny, 3 Nov 1917
      • The government tried to continue the war, so the soldiers deserted and mutinied
  • open section 19.   Growing Bolshevik influence: events
    • open section a. Red Guards, Mar 1917
      • An efficient party organisation was set up, including 2 million members, a propaganda newspaper (Pravda) and a private army (the Red Guards)
    • open section b. Lenin’s April Theses, Apr 1917
      • The Germans smuggled Lenin back to Russia, and he published his April Theses promising ‘Peace, Bread, Land’ and ‘All power to the Soviets’
    • open section c. July Days, Jul 1917
      • An attempted Bolshevik Revolution failed
    • open section d. Kornilov rebellion, Aug 1917
      • A revolution by a right-wing general named Kornilov almost succeeded; Kerensky had to ask the Red Guards for help – this made them popular .
    • open section e. Petrograd Soviet, Sep 1917
      • The Bolsheviks gained control of the Petrograd Soviet
  • open section 20.   The Kornilov Affair: events
    • open section a. Kornilov's plan, July 1917
      • After the July Days riots, Kerensky discussed setting up a strong military government with Kornilov and the Army; Kornilov moved the an army division near to Petrograd
    • open section b. Kornilov dismissed, 27 Aug 1917
      • On 26 Aug, Kerensky was told that Kornilov wanted to set up a military dictatorship led by himself; next day he dismissed Kornilov
    • open section c. Kornilov advanced, 29 Aug 1917
      • Kornilov sent the Third Cavalry Corps, led by General Krymov, to advanced on Petrograd
    • open section d. The Red Guards defended Petrograd, 30 Aug 1917
      • Kerensky called on the Red Guards and the Kronstadt sailors to defend Petrograd; in the face of 25,000 armed Bolsheviks, the 7,000 soldiers retreated – the coup had failed .
    • open section e. Kornilov imprisoned, 1 Sep 1917
      • Some historians think that Kerensky tricked Kornilov into attacking so he could remove him, or that he encouraged him at first but changed his mind when he realised he would lose power
  • open section 21.   The Kornilov Affair: significance
    • open section a. Kornilov imprisoned
      • Kornilov was imprisoned; when the Civil War broke out, he escaped and joined the White army
    • open section b. Army discipline collapsed
      • The failure of the coup destroyed the soldiers' last respect for their officers; discipline in the army collapsed – soldiers deserted and mutinied (e.g. the Petrograd Mutiny, 21 Oct 1917)
    • open section c. Kerensky abandoned
      • Kerensky lost his one chance to establish a strong government with the support of the Army
    • open section d. Bolshevik popularity
      • The Bolsheviks became the people's heroes; in Sep 1917 they gained control of the Petrograd Soviet .
    • open section e. October Revolution
      • Kerensky lost the support of the army; on 21 Oct the Petrograd garrison mutinied, and when the Bolsheviks attacked the Army did not support the Provisional Government
  • open section 22.   Bolshevik seizure of power: events
    • open section a. Petrograd Mutiny, 3 Nov 1917
      • Kerensky ordered the Petrograd garrison to the front; they refused
    • open section b. Red Guards took key positions, 6 Nov 1917
      • Red Guards took over key buildings (bridges, telephone exchange)
    • open section c. Winter Palace, 7 Nov 1917
      • After a bombardment from the battleship Aurora, the Red Guards took the Winter Palace (the government HQ)
    • open section d. Congress of Soviets, 7–8 Nov 1917
      • The Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries walked out in protest at the Bolshevik takeover .
    • open section e. Lenin announced the new government, 8 Nov 1917
      • Lenin announced the Bolshevik regime and ‘the construction of the socialist order’
  • open section 23.   Why could the Bolsheviks seize power in November 1917?
    • open section a. Lenin and Trotsky
      • Lenin provided a figure-head and ruthless, flexible leadership. Trotsky brilliantly organised the October coup, propaganda and formation of the CHEKA and Red Army
    • open section b. Failure of the Provisional Government
      • It failed a solve a single one of its problems (Economic and land problems, splits, the Petrograd Soviet and lack of army support), leading to riots, mutinies and anarchy
    • open section c. German support
      • The Germans smuggled Lenin into Russia and financed the Bolsheviks
    • open section d. Bolshevik organisation
      • An efficient party organisation included 2 million members, Pravda, the Red Guards and a slogan (‘Peace Bread Land’) .
    • open section e. The October Revolution
      • An almost bloodless coup d’etat
  • open section 24.   Lenin's new society
    • open section a. Land Decree, 8 Nov 1917
      • Took land from the landlords and gave it to the peasants
    • open section b. Peace Decree published, 9 Nov 1917
      • Proposed immediate withdrawal from the First World War
    • open section c. Workers Decrees, 12 Nov 1917
      • Workers were given an 8-hour day, paid holiday and sick leave, old-age pensions were introduced; the Bolsheviks allowed free love, divorce and abortion
    • open section d. Women’s equality, Jul 1918
      • Article 22 of the Russian Constitution gave women equal rights – they could be journalists, doctors, teachers and soldiers .
    • open section e. Decree to Eradicate Illiteracy, Dec 1919
      • There was a campaign to teach everyone to read
  • open section 25.   Establishment of Bolshevik rule
    • open section a. Constituent Assembly dismissed, 6 Jan 1918
      • Lenin dismissed the Constituent Assembly (6 January 1918) because 370 deputies were Social Revolutionaries (and only 175 Bolsheviks)
    • open section b. Dictatorship of the Proletariat
      • He declared the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ and ruled by decree
    • open section c. CHEKA
      • The CHEKA (secret police) pursued opponents; anti-Bolshevik publications were banned
    • open section d. Red Terror, Sep 1918
      • After an attempt to assassinate him, Lenin launched the ‘Red Terror’ – 50,000 opponents were arrested, tortured or executed .
    • open section e. Constitutional Law, 1923
      • Set up the USSR; the government was run by a ‘Council of Commissars’ (Sovnarkom) controlled by the Communist Party’s cabinet (Politburo)
  • open section 26.   Russia quits the First World War
    • open section a. Peace Decree published, 9 Nov 1917
      • Proposed immediate withdrawal from the First World War
    • open section b. Armistice, Dec 1917
      • Armistice signed between Russia and the Central Powers
    • open section c. German invasion, Feb 1918
      • Peace negotiations stalled because Russia refused to give up land, so the Germans invaded; Lenin agreed peace at any price
    • open section d. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Mar 1918
      • Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and the Ukraine – a third of its farmland, three-quarters of its coal and iron mines .
    • open section e. Compensation, Aug 1918
      • Russia paid Germany compensation of 6 billion marks
  • open section 27.   Russian Civil War, 1918: causes
    • open section a. White Russians
      • Supporters of the Tsar – nobles, generals, landowners – wanted to restore Nicholas
    • open section b. Britain, France and the USA
      • Britain, France and the USA wanted to keep Russia in the First World War, and were motivated by fear of world communism
    • open section c. Japan and Poland
      • Japan and Poland invaded to try to conquer Russian land
    • open section d. Ukrainians and Georgians
      • The Ukrainians and Georgians wanted independence .
    • open section e. Czech prisoners-of-war
      • Czech prisoners-of-war escaped, took over the Trans-Siberian Railway, and robbed and looted
  • open section 28.   The Civil War: events
    • open section a. Japan and Poland
      • Japan and Poland invaded to try to conquer Russian land
    • open section b. Admiral Kolchak
      • Kolchak set up a ‘White’ government in Siberia and marched on Moscow; he was defeated in 1919
    • open section c. General Denikin
      • Denikin (with French support) advanced from southern Russia; his army was defeated in 1920
    • open section d. General Yudenich
      • Yudenich (with British money) attacked from Estonia and got to within 12 miles of Petrograd; he was defeated in 1920 .
    • open section e. Czech prisoners-of-war
      • They advanced to Kazan, just 450 miles from Moscow, then bought safe passage home by handing over Admiral Kolchak and the White Army’s gold
  • open section 29.   Bolsheviks victory: causes
    • open section a. Bolshevik zeal
      • The Bolshevik soldiers were motivated and fighting for a Communist state; the Whites were politically disunited and geographically split
    • open section b. Agit trains
      • Propaganda – agit trains took mobile cinemas, speakers and leaflets round the country
    • open section c. 'War Communism'
      • 'War Communism' provided the Red Army with the supplies it needed
    • open section d. The Red Terror
      • The Red Terror murdered 750,000 Whites; Red generals’ families were kidnapped to keep them loyal; the royal family was executed in July 1918 .
    • open section e. The Red Army
      • Red Army – Trotsky brilliantly organised an army of 300,000; it was well disciplined and well equipped
  • open section 30.   Bolshevik victory: consequences
    • open section a. Bolshevik government
      • The Bolsheviks survived as the government of Russia
    • open section b. Famine
      • Famine – 5 million died
    • open section c. Inflation
      • Inflation – money became worthless; people reverted to barter
    • open section d. Atrocities
      • Atrocities – massacres, tortures committed by both sides in the war .
    • open section e. The Red Terror
      • Some historians think that the brutality of the Civil War made the Bolshevik government particularly ruthless in power
  • open section 31.   Creation of the USSR
    • open section a. Creation of the USSR, 1922
      • Stalin announced the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, which was agreed by the Soviet Socialist Republics of Russia, Transcaucasia, Ukraine and Byelorussia
    • open section b. Constitutional Law, 1923
      • Set up the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
    • open section c. Sovnarkom
      • The government was run by a ‘Council of People’s Commissars’
    • open section d. Politburo
      • The government was controlled by the Communist Party’s ruling cabinet .
    • open section e. Russification
      • Russia dominated the USSR, and tried to destroy the language and customs of other nationalities
  • open section 32.   'War Communism': causes
    • open section a. Communist ideology, Jun 1918
      • The Decree on the Nationalisation of Industry abolished capitalism
    • open section b. Economic crisis
      • During the Civil War, a quarter of all firms failed, production fell catastrophically, with large-scale unemployment and food shortages
    • open section c. Bolshevik towns needed food
      • Supplies had been disrupted by the Civil War
    • open section d. The Red Army needed supplies
      • Industry needed to be put on a war footing .
    • open section e. Inflation
      • Money was losing value, people were reverting to barter
  • open section 33.   'War Communism': features
    • open section a. The Council of People’s Economy
      • The government directed production; the Council of National Economy (VSNKh) told each factory what and how much to produce
    • open section b. Military discipline of workers
      • Military discipline was imposed in factories and strikers were shot
    • open section c. Nationalisation of industry
      • Large factories and banks were taken over by the government
    • open section d. Prodrazvyorstka
      • Peasants had to give all surplus food to the government; CHEKA units seized grain and killed any peasants trying to hide food .
    • open section e. Ration cards replaced money
      • Food was rationed, with most food going first to manual workers, and professional people getting least
  • open section 34.   'War Communism': consequences
    • open section a. Economy ruined
      • Industrial output had fallen to 13% of the 1913 level, iron and steel production to 4%
    • open section b. Food production declined
      • When all your surplus production was confiscated, there was no point in producing any more than subsistence
    • open section c. Village riots
      • After 1920, there were riots in many villages when the CHEKA tried to confiscate grain
    • open section d. Food procurements
      • Increased six-fold 1918–1921 .
    • open section e. Red Terror
      • The CHEKA, strikers were shot, peasants hiding grain were executed
  • open section 35.   The Kronstadt rebellion, 1921: events
    • open section a. Workers' Opposition, 1920
      • The Trade Unions united to oppose ''War Communism'' and the Bolshevik rules; in the countryside, peasants prevented the collection of the Prodrazvyorstka
    • open section b. Petropavlovsk mutiny, 28 Feb 1921
      • The crew of the ship Petropavlovsk declared their support for Petrograd workers who were striking against ''War Communism'', and called for elections and freedom
    • open section c. Kronstadt Soviet, 1 Mar 1921
      • A demonstration of 15,000 soldiers elected a new Kronstadt Soviet and abolished Bolshevik rules
    • open section d. Trotsky's attack, 7–17 Mar 1921
      • Trotsky attacked and defeated the Kronstadt fortress; 10,000 Red Guards were killed .
    • open section e. Executions, 18 Mar 1921
      • 500 captured sailors were executed without trial; over the next few months 2000 more were put to death
  • open section 36.   The Kronstadt rebellion, 1921: results
    • open section a. Arrest of opponents
      • In all, some 2,500 sailors were executed; Lenin used the Kronstadt rebellion as an excuse to crush the Workers' Opposition, and to arrest many other opponents (e.g. the Mensheviks)
    • open section b. Solovki concentration camp
      • Solovki concentration camp, set up for the sailors and other opponents, was the first Soviet camp, and the start of the GULAG
    • open section c. 10th Party Congress: the Ban on Factions
      • The 10th Party Congress (Mar 1921) also banned all factions (disagreements within the Bolshevik Party); Stalin would later use this to eliminate his opponents
    • open section d. 10% Prodnalog
      • At the 10th Party Congress (Mar 1921) Lenin replaced the Prodrazvyorstka with the Prodnalog (a tax in kind of 10% of produce) – much lighter, and the start of the New Economic Policy .
    • open section e. NEP, 1923
      • Although Lenin intended the tax in kind to be temporary, he never managed to reinstate 'War Communism', and instead had to introduce the New Economic Policy in 1923
  • open section 37.   New Economic Policy: causes
    • open section a. The Civil War was over
      • So the extreme measures of 'War Communism' were no longer needed
    • open section b. Economy ruined
      • Industrial output had fallen to 13% of the 1913 level, iron and steel production to 4%
    • open section c. Food production declined
      • Grain confiscation had reduced agriculture to subsistence farming
    • open section d. Village riots
      • There were riots in many villages; this showed how much 'War Communism' was hated .
    • open section e. Kronstadt rebellion, Mar 1921
      • The Kronstadt sailors rebelled; although Trotsky brutally crushed the rebellion, Lenin realised he had to change his policy
  • open section 38.   New Economic Policy: features
    • open section a. Prodnalog
      • A food tax (Prodnalog) replaced Prodrazvyorstka (confiscation of surplus produce)
    • open section b. Kulaks
      • Farmers were allowed to sell their surplus produce for profit; kulak farmers prospered
    • open section c. Nepmen
      • Private businesses were allowed; small factories were given back to their owners and ‘Nepmen’ set up private enterprises
    • open section d. Nationalities
      • Nationalities (e.g. Ukrainians) were allowed their own language and customs .
    • open section e. Freedom of Religion
      • Freedom of religion was allowed to Christians and Muslims
  • open section 39.   New Economic Policy: consequences
    • open section a. Production increased to 1914 levels
      • Grain production doubled; coal tripled; electricity increased five-fold
    • open section b. Kulaks
      • Farmers were allowed to sell their surplus produce for profit; kulak farmers prospered
    • open section c. Nepmen
      • ‘Nepmen’ set up private enterprises; some were resented for charging high prices
    • open section d. Old Bolsheviks resigned
      • Many old Bolsheviks resigned, saying it was a return to capitalism .
    • open section e. Russia remained economically backward
      • Russia remained economically backward compared to the West
  • open section 40.   Communist rule in the 1920s: facts
    • open section a. Vozhd
      • Lenin was the undisputed vozhd (leader)
    • open section b. Dictatorship of the proletariat, Jan 1918
      • Lenin dismissed the Constituent Assembly, declared the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ and ruled by decree
    • open section c. Constitutional Law, 1923
      • Lenin set up the USSR and ensured the ‘Council of People’s Commissars’ (Sovnarkom) – was controlled by the Communist Party’s ruling cabinet (the Politburo)
    • open section d. OGPU and GULAG
      • Opponents – both outside and inside the Communist Party – were arrested by the OGPU (secret police) and sent to the ‘GULAG’ (the system of labour camps) .
    • open section e. Agitprop, 1920
      • The Politburo set up an Agitprop Department to organise censorship and propaganda; ‘agit-trains’ took newsreels round the country
  • open section 41.   Lenin: roles and achievements
    • open section a. Vozhd
      • Lenin was the figurehead and accepted leader (vozhd) – important in a party of revolutionaries
    • open section b. German support
      • Lenin persuaded the Germans to smuggle him back to Russia and to finance the Bolsheviks in 1917
    • open section c. April Theses
      • The April Theses provided the ideas and attracted support in 1917; Lenin brought in the new communist society
    • open section d. Dictatorship of the proletariat
      • Lenin ruthlessly seized power in January 1918 and established Bolshevik rule by announcing the Red Terror .
    • open section e. 'War Communism'
      • Lenin introduced the system of 'War Communism' which gave the Bolsheviks unity and victory in the Russian Civil War

   

 

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