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The War at Sea

WWI had naval battles worldwide but only 1 major sea battle: Jutland (May 1916), w. 250+ ships. Some historians argue war was won/lost at sea since both Br. & Ger. relied on imports for food.

The U-boat campaign vs Br.

Ger. used U-boats to sink supply ships to Br.

    •  1914: Focused on Royal Navy, sank 9 warships, but Br. tactics made attacks harder.

    •  Also laid mines in Br. waters.

    •  Feb 1915: retaliating vs Br. blockade, Ger. declared ‘ submarine warfare’ zone (sinking all ships sailing to Br.).

    •  Aug 1915: U-boats sank 2 ships/day. Br. relied on imports for food & war supplies.

Suspension of unrestricted submarine warfare (Mar 1916)

Risk: Neutral ships sunk → international outrage

    •  US angered by sinking of Harpalyce (relief ship).

    •  May 1915: sunk, killing 1,200 (inc. US citizens) → Wilson warned Ger..

    •  Aug 1915: Arabic sunk, 3 US citizens killed → Ger. stopped unrestricted warfare.

    •  Mar 1916: Sussex sunk → Wilson threatened to cut ties → Ger. issued ' Pledge' (no attacks on passenger ships, warning to merchant crews).

Anti-submarine measures

Br. developed countermeasures:

    1.  : Disguised warships lured U-boats to surface, then attacked.

    2.  : Type D introduced (Jan 1916), but lacked good detection tech (hydrophones underdeveloped).

    3.   & submarine nets: Placed in English Channel.

Effectiveness: Limited – only 15 U-boats sunk by end 1916. Yet U-boats sank 25% of ships to Br.. 1917: Br. had only 2 months' flour left.

Resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare (Jan 1917)

1917: Ger. Admiralty wanted to resume U-boat attacks; said 600k tons/month sunk → Br. would surrender in 6 months.

    •  31 Jan 1917: Kaiser agrees ∵ Admiral promised: “not one American will land on the Continent.”

    •  Feb 1917: Wilson cut ties w. Ger. but did not declare war (US isolationist mood).

    •  Apr 1917: Zimmermann Telegram pushed US to declare war on Ger..

Anti-submarine measures (continued)

    4.  : from Apr 1917, merchant ships sailed in groups of 20+, escorted by warships w. depth charges → U-boats struggled to attack. By 1918, only 1 in 25 merchant ships sunk.

    5.  US assistance: American battleships protected convoys. US wheat shipments helped Br..

Effectiveness: Aug 1917: 211 ships sunk → 1918: losses halved, then fell rapidly.

The Battle of Jutland, May 1916

While U-boats targeted Br.’s supplies, Br. blockaded Ger..

    •  May 1916: Ger. fleet () attempted to break blockade, met Br. Grand Fleet ().

    •  Ger. had better gunners & shells penetrated Br. armour → 3 Br. ships exploded.

    •  Br. losses: 14 ships (inc. 3 battleships), 6k killed. Ger. losses: 11 smaller ships, 2,550 killed.

    •  Scheer, fearing total loss, retreated. Jellicoe, fearing same, did not pursue.

When is a defeat a victory?

Ger. claimed victory but never left port again (Nov 1918: sailors mutinied when ordered out).

    •  Br. blockade continued → Ger. starved. 750k Germans died from hunger/disease (eg scurvy, TB, dysentery).

    •  1918: Ger. surviving on , potatoes, berries. Hunger Riots: 1915, 1916, 1918.

    •  Ger. Govt feared Communist revolt → ended war. ∴ Jellicoe was ‘defeated’ at Jutland = key to victory.